Was Muhammad Really Illiterate? A Critical Examination of the Islamic Claim of Muhammad’s Illiteracy and Its Use as Evidence for the Divine Origin of the Qur’an
Dr. Maxwell Shimba
Shimba Theological Institute
Abstract
Many Muslims argue that the Prophet Muhammad’s alleged illiteracy serves as proof that the Qur’an must be divinely inspired, claiming that it would be impossible for an illiterate man to produce a text of such literary and rhetorical sophistication. However, both internal Islamic sources and linguistic evidence raise significant questions about whether Muhammad was truly illiterate. This paper critically examines the Islamic claim of Muhammad’s illiteracy, the meaning of the Arabic term ummiyun, and considers historical hadith evidence that suggests Muhammad may have possessed reading and writing skills. Ultimately, this study argues that Muhammad’s literacy or illiteracy is irrelevant to claims of divine authorship, as the Qur’an was compiled in written form only after his death.
Introduction
The claim of Muhammad’s illiteracy is one of the traditional apologetic positions used by Muslim scholars to affirm the miraculous nature of the Qur’an. The popular reasoning posits: how could an unlettered man produce a literary masterpiece such as the Qur’an unless aided by divine revelation? (Nasr, 2003). This belief is largely built upon the interpretation of certain Qur’anic verses and early Islamic traditions. However, closer examination of primary sources and linguistic evidence problematizes this assertion.
The Qur’an’s Compilation and the Irrelevance of Muhammad’s Literacy
It is universally acknowledged within Islamic historiography that the Qur’an was revealed orally to Muhammad and memorized by his followers before it was compiled into a written codex after his death during the caliphate of Abu Bakr and completed under Uthman (al-Bukhari, Hadith 4986). Therefore, whether Muhammad was literate has no direct bearing on the production of the Qur’anic text. As Denny (2006) observes, "The Qur'an itself was a product of oral tradition long before it became a book."
Thus, even if Muhammad had been illiterate, it would not automatically prove divine authorship of the Qur'an, as the text's preservation and composition were human activities undertaken by literate companions.
The Linguistic Ambiguity of the Term Ummiyun
One of the primary textual bases for the claim of Muhammad’s illiteracy is found in Surah 7:157, where Muhammad is referred to as al-nabiyy al-ummiy (ٱلنَّبِىَّ ٱلْأُمِّىَّ). Traditionally, ummiy is translated as unlettered or illiterate. However, authoritative lexicographical works, such as Edward Lane’s Arabic-English Lexicon, reveal that ummiy also means gentile, or one not belonging to the People of the Book (Lane, 1863, p. 92).
This understanding is contextually supported by Surah 62:2, which speaks of Muhammad being sent to the ummiyun (ٱلْأُمِّيِّينَ), conventionally rendered as the unlettered, but which can reasonably be read as the gentiles, contrasting them with Jews and Christians. Watt (1953) notes that in pre-Islamic usage, ummiyun often denoted those outside the Judeo-Christian scriptural tradition.
Therefore, the evidence does not conclusively affirm that Muhammad was illiterate, but rather may simply identify him as a non-Jewish, non-Christian Arab.
Hadith Evidence Suggesting Muhammad’s Literacy
In addition to linguistic analysis, several authentic hadith reports imply Muhammad possessed at least basic literacy:
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The Treaty of Hudaybiyyah (Sahih al-Bukhari 2699)
When negotiating with the Meccans, Muhammad is reported to have taken a treaty document and altered its text himself after a dispute about his prophetic title. The hadith records:
"Allah’s Messenger took the document and wrote: 'This is what Muhammad bin Abdullah has agreed upon…'" (al-Bukhari, 2699).
If accurate, this account directly contradicts the claim that Muhammad was incapable of writing.
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The Event of the Pen and Paper Before His Death (Sahih al-Bukhari 114; Sahih Muslim 1637a)
Before his death, Muhammad reportedly asked for writing materials to write a statement to prevent the community from going astray:
"Bring me paper so that I may write for you a statement after which you will never go astray." (al-Bukhari, 114).
The wording here implies his capacity to write, undermining claims of complete illiteracy.
Conclusion
The claim of Muhammad’s illiteracy as a miraculous proof for the divine origin of the Qur’an is both theologically and historically problematic. First, Muhammad’s literacy status is irrelevant since the Qur’an was compiled as a written book only after his death. Second, linguistic evidence reveals that ummiyun more appropriately refers to a gentile, not necessarily an illiterate person. Third, credible hadith traditions suggest Muhammad was at least capable of reading and writing.
Therefore, the argument from illiteracy is neither a reliable proof of the Qur'an’s divine origin nor a historically uncontested fact. Rather, it is a theological assertion unsupported by conclusive textual or historical evidence.
References
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al-Bukhari, M. I. (n.d.). Sahih al-Bukhari. Hadith No. 114, 2699, 4986.
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Denny, F. M. (2006). An Introduction to Islam. Pearson/Prentice Hall.
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Lane, E. W. (1863). An Arabic-English Lexicon. Williams & Norgate.
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Nasr, S. H. (2003). The Heart of Islam: Enduring Values for Humanity. HarperOne.
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Watt, W. M. (1953). Muhammad at Mecca. Oxford University Press.
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Sahih Muslim. (n.d.). Hadith 1637a.
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