By Dr. Maxwell Shimba, Shimba Theological Institute
Abstract
The traditional Islamic narrative asserts that Muhammad was “ummi”—often interpreted as “illiterate.” However, a careful reading of the Hadith and early Islamic sources presents a more nuanced and, at times, contradictory picture. This article critically examines the hadithic evidence concerning Muhammad’s literacy, evaluates the meaning of “ummi” in historical context, and addresses the theological implications of affirming Muhammad’s ability to read and write.
Introduction
Muslim orthodoxy frequently holds that the Prophet Muhammad was illiterate, unable to read or write Arabic. This assertion, rooted in the term “ummi” as used in the Qur’an (Qur’an 7:157-158), is often cited as evidence of the miraculous nature of the Qur’an, believed to be revealed to an unlettered prophet. However, hadith literature and early Islamic historical sources provide compelling evidence challenging this claim. This article explores these sources, interrogating the theological and historical implications of Muhammad’s literacy.
I. Linguistic and Contextual Analysis of “Ummi”
The word “ummi” (أُمِّيٌّ) in Arabic traditionally translates as “illiterate” or “unlettered.” However, scholars such as W. Montgomery Watt and Alfred Guillaume have argued that “ummi” may refer to “gentile” (one who is not Jewish or Christian) or one not formally instructed in the scriptures, rather than simply illiterate (see Watt, Muhammad at Mecca, 1953).
Qur’anic Usage
The Qur’an refers to Muhammad as “the unlettered prophet” (النَّبِيُّ الْأُمِّيُّ), but the same root is used in the Qur’an to describe “ummiyeen” (gentiles, or non-Jews) in 2:78. Thus, the term does not necessarily denote an inability to read and write.
II. Hadithic Evidence: Muhammad’s Literacy
1. Treaty of Hudaybiyyah: Writing His Name
The Sahih al-Bukhari (2731; also see 3186, 4199, 4832) narrates that during the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah, Muhammad participated in the drafting of the document. When the Quraysh emissary objected to the title “Messenger of Allah,” Muhammad asked for the phrase to be erased. The narration in some versions states:
“The Prophet took the document though he did not know how to write, and he wrote, ‘This is what Muhammad, the Messenger of Allah, has agreed to.’”
(Sahih Bukhari 3186, 4199, 4832; also Sahih Muslim 1784)
Some narrations include, “The Prophet wrote,” and others clarify that he “asked Ali to write,” but the persistence of narrations where Muhammad himself “wrote” or made corrections is notable.
2. Muhammad’s Signature and Seal
The Sahih al-Bukhari (4425) describes the Prophet’s use of a ring inscribed with “Muhammad Rasul Allah,” which he used as a seal for correspondence. In Sahih Muslim (2092), it is stated:
“The Messenger of Allah (ﷺ) intended to write to the Persians, Romans, and Abyssinians. It was said, 'They will not accept any letter unless it is stamped with a seal.' So he took a silver ring and had (the words) Muhammad, Messenger of Allah engraved on it…”
Here, the act of sending written letters is ascribed directly to Muhammad, with historical records indicating these letters were preserved and read by their recipients.
3. The Incident at the Deathbed
A famous episode in Sahih al-Bukhari (114, 4431) recounts that as Muhammad lay dying, he asked for writing materials to record a statement:
“Bring me a (pen and paper) so that I may write for you a statement after which you will not go astray.”
This incident suggests familiarity with writing and the expectation that he could dictate or author documents.
4. Hadith of Mu’awiyah bin Al-Hakam
Sahih Muslim 537 narrates a story of a slave girl, where Muhammad asks her, “Where is Allah?” and “Who am I?” Some versions of this hadith mention that Muhammad “wrote” (kataba) instructions or words, highlighting a potential for literacy.
III. Early Islamic Historical Accounts
Ibn Ishaq’s Sira
Ibn Ishaq (d. 767 CE), in his Sirat Rasul Allah, narrates multiple occasions where the Prophet read, corrected, or dictated letters and contracts. There are also accounts of his business dealings in Mecca, which would have required basic literacy in record-keeping.
IV. Theological Implications
Miraculousness of the Qur’an
If Muhammad could read and write, the apologetic argument that the Qur’an’s literary merit is miraculous due to his illiteracy is weakened. However, the miracle could then be ascribed to the substance and content of the revelation, not merely the mode.
Integrity of Transmission
Acknowledging Muhammad’s literacy does not diminish the message but rather enhances the plausibility of accurate transmission of revelation, as the Prophet could oversee, review, and authenticate written documents.
“Ummi” as Gentile
If “ummi” means gentile rather than illiterate, then Qur’anic inerrancy is maintained, and the hadith evidence harmonizes with the historical context.
V. Counterarguments and Reconciliation
Some Muslim scholars argue that narrations suggesting Muhammad’s writing are metaphorical or refer to dictation. However, the prevalence and multiplicity of hadith mentioning his direct engagement with writing cannot be easily dismissed. The argument that Muhammad was initially illiterate but later learned to read and write is also present in some early tafsir (see al-Tabari, Tafsir al-Tabari, on Qur’an 29:48).
Conclusion
The hadithic and historical evidence reveals that Muhammad’s relationship to literacy was more complex than traditional narratives suggest. Theological insistence on his illiteracy is not required by the evidence and may arise from later apologetic concerns. An honest reading of hadith and sira demonstrates occasions where Muhammad read, wrote, or corrected written materials. Reinterpreting “ummi” as “gentile” reconciles Qur’anic language with these traditions, suggesting that the Prophet Muhammad possessed at least functional literacy, a fact that aligns with his role as a statesman, leader, and communicator.
References
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Sahih al-Bukhari: Hadiths 2731, 3186, 4199, 4832, 114, 4431, 4425.
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Sahih Muslim: Hadiths 1784, 2092, 537.
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Ibn Ishaq, Sirat Rasul Allah, tr. A. Guillaume.
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Al-Tabari, Tafsir al-Tabari (on Qur’an 29:48).
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Watt, W. Montgomery. Muhammad at Mecca, 1953.
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Guillaume, Alfred, Islam, 1954.
Dr. Maxwell Shimba
Shimba Theological Institute
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