Friday, September 12, 2025

If All Are Born Muslim, Why the Need for Religion and Prophets?

 

By Dr. Maxwell Shimba, Shimba Theological Institute

Introduction

Islamic theology affirms that every human being is born a Muslim, naturally disposed to recognize and submit to Allah. This claim is grounded in the Qur’anic doctrine of fitrah (innate disposition), a belief that every child is born with an instinctive orientation toward monotheism. Yet this doctrine introduces serious theological and logical difficulties. If all humanity—including Adam—was already born in submission, what then is the need for religion, prophets, and revelation? The following study critically examines the coherence of Islam’s fitrah doctrine and contrasts it with the biblical doctrine of creation, fall, and redemption.

The Fitrah in the Qur’an

The Qur’an teaches that mankind is created in a state of natural submission:

“So set your face toward the religion, inclining to truth. [Adhere to] the fitrah of Allah upon which He has created [all] people. No change should there be in the creation of Allah. That is the correct religion, but most of the people do not know” (Qur’an 30:30).¹

Here, Islam asserts that submission to Allah is woven into human nature itself. Consequently, Adam is presumed to have been “born Muslim,” not by choice or revelation, but by creation. This implies that divine guidance is already embedded within man’s nature from birth.

The Redundancy of Prophets in Islam

If mankind is already born in a state of submission, the question arises: why the need for prophets and scriptures at all? Prophets are traditionally viewed as guides who recall mankind to truth. But if the fitrah is uncorrupted and sufficient, such guidance becomes redundant. On the other hand, if guidance is still required, this implies that the fitrah is inadequate to preserve submission.

This paradox undermines Islamic theology:

  • If the fitrah is sufficient, then the Qur’an, prophets, and Muhammad are unnecessary.

  • If the fitrah is insufficient, then the Qur’an contradicts itself by claiming all people are already born in submission.

Infants, Judgment, and the Problem of Salvation

The Islamic position leads to further inconsistency. If all infants are born Muslim by default, then they already fulfill the divine requirement without knowledge of Muhammad or the Qur’an. Islamic tradition often holds that children who die before maturity enter Paradise based on their fitrah.² But this undermines the necessity of Islam’s religious system, since revelation is not required for their salvation.

If salvation is attainable without prophetic revelation for infants, why not for all humanity? This exposes a deep theological dilemma: either revelation is essential for salvation, in which case the fitrah doctrine collapses, or revelation is non-essential, rendering Muhammad and the Qur’an unnecessary.

The Biblical View: Creation, Fall, and Redemption

Christianity presents a more coherent account of humanity’s condition. The Bible teaches that Adam was indeed created in fellowship with God but fell into sin through disobedience (Genesis 3). This fall disrupted man’s natural communion with God, introducing death and alienation. Unlike the Islamic doctrine of fitrah, the Bible affirms that mankind is not born in unbroken submission but in a fallen state: “Surely I was sinful at birth, sinful from the time my mother conceived me” (Psalm 51:5).³ The Apostle Paul echoes this: “Sin entered the world through one man, and death through sin, and in this way death came to all people, because all sinned” (Romans 5:12).⁴

Therefore, prophets in Scripture do not merely remind humanity of an innate submission but reveal God’s redemptive plan. This plan culminates in Jesus Christ, who restores mankind to fellowship with God through His death and resurrection (Romans 5:18–19; 1 Corinthians 15:22). Christianity thus explains both the need for revelation and the necessity of salvation in a way that is logically consistent and theologically complete.

The Necessity of Christ

Where Islam struggles with the redundancy of prophets under the fitrah doctrine, Christianity maintains coherence in affirming the necessity of Christ. Humanity is not simply misled but fallen. Thus, a mere reminder is insufficient; restoration requires atonement. Jesus fulfills this role uniquely—performing miracles (John 11:43–44), revealing God perfectly (John 14:9), dying for sin (Hebrews 9:26–28), and rising again (John 11:25). Unlike Muhammad, whose role is limited to instruction, Jesus provides actual redemption.

Scholarly Implications

The doctrine of fitrah reveals a structural weakness in Islamic apologetics. By claiming that all people are born Muslim, Islam undercuts its own need for prophets and scripture. The Qur’an and Muhammad’s mission become either redundant or contradictory. Christianity, however, avoids this problem by offering a coherent anthropology: man was created good, fell into sin, and requires redemption through Christ. This framework accounts for both the necessity of revelation and the uniqueness of salvation history.

From an academic standpoint, this paradox within Islam underscores the superiority of the biblical worldview. Islam attempts to explain the human condition through innate submission, but the reality of sin, moral corruption, and the universal need for redemption point toward the Christian gospel as the only consistent answer. Thus, while Islam’s doctrine of fitrah falters under scrutiny, the Christian narrative demonstrates theological integrity, historical grounding, and salvific necessity.

References

  1. Qur’an 30:30 (Sahih International translation).

  2. Sahih al-Bukhari 1385; Sahih Muslim 2658 — traditions affirming that children of Muslims (and, in some narrations, all children) are admitted into Paradise.

  3. Psalm 51:5 (NIV).

  4. Romans 5:12 (NIV). See also Romans 3:23; 1 Corinthians 15:22.

  5. John 11:25; Hebrews 9:26–28; John 14:9.

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Why Are 90% (or More) of the Prophets Named in the Qurʾān Jewish Men?

 

Why Are 90% (or More) of the Prophets Named in the Qurʾān Jewish Men?

An academic, multi-section inquiry with critical questions for Muslim readers
By Dr Maxwell Shimba — Shimba Theological Institute

Abstract

The Qurʾān names roughly 25 prophets explicitly; a large majority correspond to figures from the Hebrew Bible (the Torah / Tanakh) and later canonical Jewish and Christian tradition (e.g., Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, Moses, David, Solomon, Jonah, Job, Joseph). This article examines that empirical fact, surveys Islamic and Christian/Jewish source material, considers historical and literary explanations, and raises critical questions directed to Muslim theological and historical accounts. The paper concludes by suggesting avenues for further research and offers footnote-style references and a journal-style bibliography.

1. Introduction — statement of the problem

Readers of the Qurʾān will note that most of the prophets named in its text are the same persons who appear in the Hebrew Bible. If one compiles the names that appear by explicit mention, a canonical count frequently cited in Islamic literature is 25 named prophets (though Islamic tradition also speaks of many thousands of prophets sent to humankind). The striking overlap between Qurʾānic prophet-names and the Hebrew Bible raises academic questions about source-relations, reception, and the Qurʾān’s self-presentation as a continuation or correction of earlier revelation. This paper sets out those facts, outlines possible explanatory frameworks, and formulates pointed, scholarly questions for Muslim interpreters. Riwaya+1

2. Empirical overview: who the Qurʾān names (selective list)

The Qurʾān explicitly names (in its Arabic forms) many figures who are also prominent in Jewish and Christian scriptures: Adam, Noah (Nūḥ), Abraham (Ibrāhīm), Ishmael (Ismāʿīl), Isaac (Isḥāq), Jacob (Yaʿqūb), Joseph (Yūsuf), Moses (Mūsā), Aaron (Hārūn), David (Dāwūd), Solomon (Sulaimān), Job (Ayyūb), Jonah (Yūnus), Elijah (Ilyās), Elisha (Al-Yasaʿ), and Jesus (ʿĪsā), among others. Many Surahs explicitly list groups of prophets together (for example, Qurʾān 4:163 and 6:84 mention Abraham, Ishmael, Isaac, Jacob and many of their descendants). The count “25 named prophets” is widely repeated in both Muslim devotional literature and academic summaries. Quran.com+2Quran.com+2

Load-bearing facts (examples):

  • The Qurʾān names a set of prophets that largely overlaps the Hebrew Bible’s principal figures (e.g., Moses, Abraham, David). Quran.com+1

  • Islamic tradition (exegesis and hadith) also treats the “people of Israel” and their succession of prophets as a primary ancient prophetic locus. Yaqeen Institute for Islamic Research+1

3. Historical and literary context (brief survey)

Scholars of early Islam note several relevant points: the Qurʾān addresses communities in late antique Arabia who were already familiar with Jewish and Christian narratives; the Qurʾān self-presents as correcting or restoring what it calls distorted earlier scriptures; and the use of familiar biblical names and episodes functions rhetorically to situate Islam within an Abrahamic line and to make moral/theological points using well-known exemplars. Some recent academic discussions investigate how the Qurʾān engages Jewish and Christian textual materials and oral traditions in late antiquity. Yaqeen Institute for Islamic Research+1

4. Onomastics (names and forms) — Arabic translations of older names

A straightforward observation is that the Qurʾān uses Arabicized forms of Semitic names (e.g., Ibrāhīm ← *Avraham/Abraham; Mūsā ← Moses; Isḥāq ← Isaac). Linguistically and historically this is unsurprising: Arabic and Hebrew/Aramaic are Semitic languages that share many roots and name forms; when a text moves between Semitic languages names are typically adapted phonologically. But the deeper question is not phonology alone — it is why the Qurʾān’s corpus uses a particular roster of named figures rather than naming more local Arabian, African, or Mesopotamian prophetic figures. This demands a historical explanation (see §5). Wikipedia

5. Explanatory frameworks (competing hypotheses)

Below are plausible scholarly frameworks that can help explain the predominance of Israelite/Jewish-named prophets in the Qurʾān. Each has different theological and historical consequences.

A. Continuity hypothesis (Islamic theological claim).
Islamic doctrine often asserts prophetic continuity: God sent prophets to every people (Qurʾān 35:24; 16:36) and the Qurʾān presumes many unnamed prophets, but it names those who are paradigmatic for its message. Thus, from an Islamic theological vantage, the Qurʾān’s list emphasizes the Abrahamic line because that lineage is central to the Qurʾān’s teaching. (Qurʾān 21:25; 33:40 discusses Muhammad as the seal of the prophets.) Quran.com+1

B. Reception/availability hypothesis.
Late antique Arabian audiences were exposed to Jewish and Christian narratives circulating in oral and written form. The Qurʾān selects names and episodes that would have immediate recognition and rhetorical force with such audiences; hence the high overlap. This is a literary-historical account that treats the Qurʾān as reworking existing narrative material. The Bart Ehrman Blog+1

C. Canon-formation and selection bias.
The Qurʾān is not an encyclopedic list of every prophet in world history; rather, it quotes and names a selection of exemplars suitable to its theological aims (e.g., monotheism, covenant, patience under persecution). Those exemplars happen to be the most prominent figures in the Judeo-Christian scriptural tradition. This is a functional explanation rather than a claim about origins. Quran.com

D. Polemical/communicative hypothesis.
Some scholars argue the Qurʾān intentionally engages Jewish and Christian scriptures polemically — to assert superiority/correction of what it calls corruptions — and therefore foregrounds the Israelite prophets as subjects of correction, exhortation, or confirmation. Yaqeen Institute for Islamic Research+1

Each framework yields different critical questions for Muslim theologians and historians. The next section lists such questions.

6. Scholarly questions directed to Muslim interpreters (critical, respectful, and evidence-oriented)

  1. Selection logic: What theological or historical criteria determined which prophets would be named in the Qurʾān and which would remain unnamed? If prophecy was universal, why are predominantly Israelite figures the Qurʾān’s exemplars? (See Qurʾān 4:163; 6:84.) Quran.com+1

  2. Source relationships: To what extent does the Qurʾān depend on, adapt, or correct Jewish and Christian textual or oral traditions available in Arabia? Can Muslim scholarship map specific episodes to identifiable Jewish/Christian sources or oral cycles? The Bart Ehrman Blog

  3. Onomastic origins: Given that the Hebrew Bible predates the Qurʾān by many centuries, how should Muslim scholars explain the strictly Hebrew / Israelite provenance of so many prophet-names (beyond the shared Semitic linguistic milieu)? Is the Qurʾān presenting these figures as genuinely the same historical persons, or as analogues? Wikipedia

  4. Geographical focus: Why does the Qurʾān’s named prophetic roster appear geographically concentrated in the Levant and Mesopotamia rather than, for example, in South Arabia, North Africa, or Persia — regions with their own religious histories? Are there Qurʾānic or hadithic sources that justify this geographical emphasis? Yaqeen Institute for Islamic Research+1

  5. Tradition-critique: Some Hadith and exegetical traditions speak of many more prophets (e.g., 124,000). How do exegetes reconcile the wide number of prophets with the small set of named figures in the Qurʾān? What are the criteria used in early tafsīr for associating named Qurʾānic figures with biblical characters? Facebook+1

  6. Intertextual differences: Where the Qurʾān retells episodes known from the Hebrew Bible, how do the Qurʾānic versions differ in doctrinally significant ways (e.g., Christology, covenantal claims, eschatology)? Can those differences be shown to be innovations, corrections, or independent traditions? The Bart Ehrman Blog+1

These questions invite substantive replies from Muslim exegetes and historians and can be the basis of constructive academic exchange.

7. Methodology — how this inquiry was assembled

This paper compiled Qurʾānic references (selected verses that group or name prophets), primary hadith references about prophets (representative Sahih collections), comparative biblical citations (selected Genesis/Exodus passages for Abraham and Moses), and modern scholarship about Qurʾān–Biblical intertextuality. The purpose here is not to adjudicate ultimate theological truth claims but to map observable patterns and pose academically defensible questions. The Bart Ehrman Blog+3Quran.com+3AbdurRahman.Org+3

8. Discussion — implications and a modest conclusion

That most named prophets in the Qurʾān are figures known from Jewish (and Christian) scriptures is an empirically verifiable fact. Explanations range from theological claims of prophetic continuity to historical explanations about the textual environment of late antique Arabia. For critics, this overlap raises questions about source dependence, authorship, and the Qurʾān’s self-presentation as either a restoration of older revelation or as a text that draws upon familiar religious biographies to make new claims. For Muslim apologists, the overlap is typically explained by continuity (the same God sending the same core revelation to Abrahamic figures) and by functional selection (the Qurʾān names those exemplars most relevant to its message). Both sides should engage the historical and philological evidence carefully and respectfully. Yaqeen Institute for Islamic Research+1

9. Suggested further research agenda

  1. A philological study comparing the Qurʾānic Arabic forms with Hebrew/Aramaic name variants, exploring transmission paths.

  2. A systematic mapping of Qurʾānic episodes to earliest extant Jewish and Christian texts and to known oral traditions.

  3. An examination of pre-Islamic Arabian inscriptions and narratives for non-Israelite prophetic traditions to test the geographical-selection hypothesis.

  4. A comprehensive review of tafsīr literature to catalogue exegetical rationales for the Qurʾān’s prophet selections.

10. Footnote-style references (selected, journal style)

Primary Qurʾānic citations (English transl./online):

  1. Qurʾān 4:163 (An-Nisāʾ). Translation and text: quran.com. Quran.com+1

  2. Qurʾān 6:84 (Al-Anʿām). quran.com. Quran.com

  3. Qurʾān 21:25 (Al-Anbiyāʾ). quran.com. Quran.com

  4. Qurʾān 33:40 (Al-Aḥzāb, “seal of the prophets”). quran.com / corpus.quran.com. Quran.com+1

Hadith / Islamic tradition (selected):
5. Sahih al-Bukhari, Book 55 (Prophets) — examples of hadiths referencing prophets and Israelite prophetic succession. (English translations available online, e.g., abdurrahman.org rendering of Bukhari Book 55). AbdurRahman.Org

Hebrew Bible / Old Testament citations (selected):
6. Genesis 12:1–5 (Call of Abram/Abraham). BibleGateway (NIV/ESV). Bible Gateway+1
7. Exodus 3:10 (God sends Moses to Pharaoh to deliver the Israelites). BibleHub / BibleGateway. Bible Hub+1

Secondary scholarship and modern discussion:
8. “The Qur’an’s Engagement with Christian and Jewish Literature” — Yaqeen Institute (review of Qurʾānic intertextuality and the ways the Qurʾān interacts with Judeo-Christian materials). (2023). Yaqeen Institute for Islamic Research
9. Stephen Shoemaker, “Creating the Qur’an: Where Did the Scripture of Islam Really Come From?” (discussion on early Islam and sources). (Blog / academic summary). The Bart Ehrman Blog
10. “Prophets and messengers in Islam” — encyclopedic overview (Wikipedia entry useful as a quick reference to named Qurʾānic figures; consult primary exegetical sources for final citation). Wikipedia+1

11. Bibliography (journal style, select)

  • The Holy Qurʾān. Online text and translations: quran.com (see Surahs 4, 6, 21, 33). Quran.com+1

  • Sahih al-Bukhari. English translation (Book 55: Prophets). (Online English renders). AbdurRahman.Org

  • The Holy Bible. Genesis 12; Exodus 3. BibleGateway / BibleHub. Bible Gateway+1

  • “Prophets and messengers in Islam.” Wikipedia. (Consult primary tafsīr/Islamic studies literature for academic work). Wikipedia

  • Yaqeen Institute. “The Qur’an’s Engagement with Christian and Jewish Literature.” (2023). Yaqeen Institute for Islamic Research

  • Shoemaker, Stephen. “Creating the Qur’an: Where Did the Scripture of Islam Really Come From?” (2023 blog/academic discussion). The Bart Ehrman Blog

12. Closing remarks and an offer

This piece is meant to be a rigorous, respectful scholarly probe: it states verifiable facts, sketches interpretive frameworks, and poses precise questions for Muslim scholars and apologists. If you would like, I can:

  • Convert this into a fully referenced journal article with numbered footnotes using Qurʾānic verse citations, Bible verse citations, and hadith references in a scholarly footnote format (Chicago, APA, or Turabian).

  • Expand any section (e.g., a full exegetical survey of tafsīr responses to the selection of prophets).

  • Produce a version edited for submission to a particular journal (please name the journal style).

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The Question of Salvation in Islam and Christianity

 

The Question of Salvation in Islam and Christianity

By Dr. Maxwell Shimba, Shimba Theological Institute

One of the most pressing theological issues between Islam and Christianity is the question of salvation and assurance of eternal life. The Qur’an itself acknowledges uncertainty in this matter, even concerning the Prophet Muhammad. In Surah al-Ahqaf (46:9), Muhammad declares:

“I am not something original among the messengers, nor do I know what will be done with me or with you. I only follow that which is revealed to me, and I am only a clear warner.”

This verse raises a critical point: Muhammad himself confessed ignorance of his ultimate destiny and that of his followers. From a doctrinal standpoint, this suggests that Islam does not guarantee salvation even to its founder, let alone to his adherents.

Further, the Qur’an explicitly states in Surah Maryam (19:71):

“There is none of you but will come to it [Hell]; this is upon your Lord an inevitability decreed.”

Islamic commentators have long debated whether this means that all Muslims will inevitably enter Hell, if only temporarily, before possibly being delivered. Yet the plain text offers no assurance of escape, highlighting a stark contrast with the Christian promise of eternal life.

In the New Testament, Jesus Christ declares with absolute authority:

“I am the way, and the truth, and the life. No one comes to the Father except through Me” (John 14:6).

Unlike Muhammad’s uncertainty, Christ provides an unambiguous assurance of salvation through His sacrificial death and resurrection. The Apostle John affirms:

“These things I have written to you who believe in the name of the Son of God, that you may know that you have eternal life” (1 John 5:13).

Thus, the Christian Gospel offers not only the possibility but the certainty of eternal life for those who believe in Christ. Islam, by contrast, leaves its followers under the shadow of uncertainty and even warns of an inevitable encounter with Hell.

Conclusion

The Qur’an’s admission of Muhammad’s ignorance about salvation (Qur’an 46:9) and its universal warning of Hell for all people (Qur’an 19:71) stand in profound tension with the Christian doctrine of assurance in Christ. While Islam offers no guarantee of paradise, the Gospel of Jesus Christ promises forgiveness, reconciliation with God, and eternal life to all who believe in Him. Therefore, there is no salvation outside of Jesus Christ.

📚 References

  • The Qur’an, Surah al-Ahqaf 46:9; Surah Maryam 19:71.

  • The Holy Bible, John 14:6; 1 John 5:13.

  • Ibn Kathir, Tafsir al-Qur’an al-‘Azim.

  • Al-Tabari, Jami‘ al-Bayan fi Ta’wil al-Qur’an.

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The Prohibition of Friendship with Non-Muslims in Islam: A Critical Examination of Qur’anic Teaching and Theological Implications

 

By Dr. Maxwell Shimba

Shimba Theological Institute

Introduction

One of the most contentious issues in Christian-Muslim dialogue concerns the Qur’anic injunctions regarding relations between Muslims and non-Muslims, especially in the context of friendship, loyalty, and trust. Several Qur’anic passages explicitly warn Muslims not to take Christians, Jews, or other non-believers as awliya (friends, protectors, or allies). The exegetical and theological implications of these passages have historically shaped Islamic attitudes towards interfaith relations. This article critically examines these injunctions, their interpretations, and their moral implications, particularly in light of deception (taqiyya) and duplicity, which bear striking resemblance to what Scripture identifies as satanic qualities.

Qur’anic Injunctions Against Friendship with Non-Muslims

The Qur’an repeatedly instructs Muslims to avoid deep bonds of friendship and alliance with non-Muslims. For example:

  • “O you who believe! Do not take the Jews and the Christians as awliya (friends or allies). They are allies of each other. And whoever among you takes them as allies is surely one of them. Indeed, Allah does not guide the wrongdoing people.” (Qur’an 5:51).1

  • “Let not the believers take disbelievers as allies instead of the believers. And whoever does that has nothing to do with Allah, unless you guard yourselves against them cautiously (except by way of precaution).” (Qur’an 3:28).2

The Arabic term awliya carries a range of meanings including “friends,” “protectors,” “patrons,” and “allies.” Classical exegetes such as Ibn Kathir emphasize that these verses are prohibitive, warning Muslims against political or emotional loyalty to Jews and Christians, while Al-Tabari underscores that taking them as protectors is tantamount to betraying Islamic faith itself.3

The Principle of Deception (Taqiyya)

The Qur’an (3:28) introduces a notable clause—“unless you guard yourselves against them cautiously”—which Muslim jurists have interpreted as legitimizing deception under certain circumstances. This doctrine, known as taqiyya, was historically systematized within Shi‘a Islam but also finds application among Sunnis in cases of necessity.4 It allows Muslims to conceal their true beliefs or intentions when under threat, or in situations where outward friendship with non-Muslims might serve protective or strategic purposes.5

Thus, the Islamic teaching can be summarized as follows:

  1. Muslims are forbidden to take non-Muslims as sincere friends.

  2. If forced by circumstance, they may outwardly pretend friendliness while inwardly harboring rejection or hostility.

  3. This duplicity is considered permissible as a safeguard for faith and community.

Such a framework not only discourages genuine interfaith trust but also normalizes suspicion and hidden animosity in religious encounters.

The Satanic Characteristics of Deception

Theologically, this teaching raises profound moral concerns. Christianity identifies deception, lying, and hatred as the very attributes of Satan. Jesus describes Satan as “a liar and the father of lies” (John 8:44).6 The Apostle Paul similarly warns that Satan disguises himself as an angel of light, using deception as his primary weapon (2 Corinthians 11:14).7

When Muslims are taught to conceal their true intentions, feign friendship, and harbor inward hostility, these behaviors echo what Scripture characterizes as satanic attributes:

  1. Deception – Satan deceived Eve in the Garden (Genesis 3:4–5).8

  2. Duplicity – Satan masquerades as light while working evil (2 Corinthians 11:14).7

  3. Hatred – Satan fosters enmity and discord among humanity (Ephesians 6:12).9

The Qur’anic teaching that authorizes deception towards non-Muslims therefore appears ethically and spiritually problematic, aligning with the properties of Satan rather than the God of truth and love revealed in Christ.

The Christian Contrast

In contrast, the Christian Scriptures command believers to love all people, including enemies: “But I say to you, love your enemies and pray for those who persecute you” (Matthew 5:44).10 The Apostle Paul exhorts Christians to live peaceably with all (Romans 12:18)11 and to extend kindness and compassion universally (Ephesians 4:32).12

Unlike the Qur’an, which permits hostility hidden beneath pretended friendship, the Bible calls for integrity, transparency, and sincerity in all relationships. True friendship and genuine love are not contingent upon religious identity but flow from the nature of God Himself, who “so loved the world that He gave His only begotten Son” (John 3:16).13

Conclusion

The Qur’anic prohibition against befriending non-Muslims, coupled with the sanctioning of deception (taqiyya), raises serious ethical and theological concerns. It fosters division, distrust, and enmity, while embodying traits Scripture attributes to Satan—deception, duplicity, and hatred. By contrast, the Gospel of Christ promotes universal love, honesty, and reconciliation. This divergence underscores the incompatibility between the Islamic doctrine of conditional, deceptive friendship and the Christian ethic of genuine love and truth.

Bibliography

  • Norman L. Geisler and Abdul Saleeb, Answering Islam: The Crescent in Light of the Cross, 2nd ed. (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2002).

Would you like me to format this in full Chicago/Turabian style (with shortened subsequent citations and full bibliographic entries at the end), or is this footnote + bibliography hybrid style good for your academic purposes?

Footnotes

  1. Qur’an 5:51, Sahih International Translation (Riyadh: Dar-us-Salam, 1997). ↩

  2. Qur’an 3:28, Sahih International Translation (Riyadh: Dar-us-Salam, 1997). ↩

  3. Ibn Kathir, Tafsir al-Qur’an al-‘Azim (Beirut: Dar al-Kutub al-‘Ilmiyya, 2000), vol. 2, 231; Al-Tabari, Jami‘ al-Bayan fi Ta’wil al-Qur’an (Cairo: Dar al-Ma‘arif, 1968), vol. 6, 289. ↩

  4. Reuven Firestone, Jihad: The Origin of Holy War in Islam (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999), 116–117. ↩

  5. David Cook, Understanding Jihad (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2005), 56–57. ↩

  6. John 8:44, The Holy Bible, English Standard Version (Crossway Bibles, 2001). ↩

  7. 2 Corinthians 11:14, ESV. ↩ ↩2

  8. Genesis 3:4–5, ESV. ↩

  9. Ephesians 6:12, ESV. ↩

  10. Matthew 5:44, ESV. ↩

  11. Romans 12:18, ESV. ↩

  12. Ephesians 4:32, ESV. ↩

  13. John 3:16, ESV. ↩

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The Anthropomorphic Dilemma: Allah’s “Shin” and the Question of Divine Uniqueness

 

The Anthropomorphic Dilemma: Allah’s “Shin” and the Question of Divine Uniqueness

By Dr. Maxwell Shimba, Shimba Theological Institute

Introduction

One of the most complex theological tensions in Islamic theology lies in the doctrine of tanzīh—the absolute transcendence of Allah—contrasted with anthropomorphic descriptions of Him found in the Qur’an and Hadith literature. Muslims are taught that Allah is utterly unlike His creation: “There is nothing like unto Him” (Qur’an 42:11). Yet, paradoxically, several Qur’anic verses and Hadith traditions attribute to Allah physical attributes and organs, such as hands (Qur’an 38:75), a face (Qur’an 55:27), eyes (Qur’an 11:37), and even a shin (Qur’an 68:42). This raises a profound theological question: if Allah possesses what is described as a “shin,” how can He simultaneously claim to be wholly unlike human beings, who also possess shins?

This article critically examines this contradiction, placing the Qur’anic notion of Allah’s “shin” under scrutiny while contrasting it with classical Islamic theology, Jewish and Christian theological anthropology, and logical-philosophical inquiry.

The Qur’anic Description of the “Shin”

The critical verse is found in Surah al-Qalam (68:42):

“[Remember] the Day when the shin will be uncovered, and they will be invited to prostration but they will not be able.”

Classical commentators (e.g., al-Tabari, Ibn Kathir, al-Qurtubi) debated whether the “shin” (sāq) in this passage refers literally to an organ of Allah or metaphorically to a sign of severe distress. Some schools of thought, particularly the Athari and early Hanbali traditions, insisted on affirming the attribute bi-lā kayf (“without asking how”), meaning that Allah does indeed have a shin but it is unlike the human shin. Ashʿarī and Māturīdī theologians, however, leaned toward metaphorical interpretations, claiming it was an Arabic idiom for hardship.

Yet, regardless of interpretation, the text introduces anthropomorphic imagery, which cannot easily be reconciled with the absolute claim of divine incomparability.

The Problem of Anthropomorphism

The central contradiction lies in the following tension:

  1. Allah declares absolute dissimilarity from creation (Qur’an 42:11).

  2. Allah is described with human organs (hands, eyes, face, shin).

  3. Human beings also possess these very organs.

If Allah’s shin is literal, then He shares a common attribute with humanity, thereby undermining His transcendence. If it is metaphorical, then why employ anthropomorphic language at all, when such language inevitably leads to confusion, anthropomorphism, and internal contradiction?

Christian theology faced similar tensions in Old Testament anthropomorphisms (e.g., “the hand of God”), but these were ultimately resolved in the doctrine of the Incarnation: God took on human form in Jesus Christ while remaining fully divine. Islam, however, denies incarnation while still attributing physical features to Allah. This results in a theological impasse: an anthropomorphic deity who is simultaneously claimed to be beyond all human likeness.

Comparative Theological Reflection

  • Jewish Tradition: Rabbinic interpretation often treated anthropomorphic references in the Torah as metaphorical or symbolic, pointing to God’s actions rather than His physical form.

  • Christian Tradition: Anthropomorphisms find their fulfillment in Christ, who is the “image of the invisible God” (Colossians 1:15). Here, divine embodiment is not a contradiction but the core of the Incarnation.

  • Islamic Tradition: Islamic theology vacillates between literalism (bi-lā kayf) and metaphorical reinterpretation (ta’wīl), leaving unresolved the inherent tension between transcendence and anthropomorphism.

Philosophical Analysis

From a philosophical standpoint, the problem can be framed as follows:

  • Premise 1: Allah claims absolute transcendence and dissimilarity.

  • Premise 2: Allah is described with human-like organs such as a shin.

  • Premise 3: Humans possess shins, hands, and faces.

  • Conclusion: Either Allah is not utterly unlike humans, or the Qur’an introduces contradictory statements.

The principle of non-contradiction (Aristotle, Metaphysics, IV.3) demands consistency. If Allah’s shin is literal, He shares features with creation. If figurative, then the Qur’an’s anthropomorphic language appears misleading or incoherent, especially when taken by literalist traditions.

Conclusion

The description of Allah as possessing a “shin” epitomizes the anthropomorphic dilemma within Islamic theology. While theologians have attempted to resolve the issue either through metaphorical interpretation or the doctrine of bi-lā kayf, the contradiction remains: if Allah is unlike humans, why attribute to Him organs that are distinctly human? Christianity resolves this tension through the Incarnation of Jesus Christ, while Islam remains trapped in a paradox between transcendence and anthropomorphism. This inconsistency undermines the Islamic claim of a perfectly coherent doctrine of God.

References and Bibliography

Primary Sources

  • Qur’an 42:11, 55:27, 68:42, 11:37, 38:75

  • Sahih al-Bukhari, Sahih Muslim – collections affirming Allah’s physical attributes.

Classical Tafsir

  • Al-Tabari, Jāmiʿ al-Bayān ʿan Taʾwīl Āy al-Qurʾān.

  • Ibn Kathir, Tafsīr al-Qur’ān al-ʿAẓīm.

  • Al-Qurtubi, Al-Jāmiʿ li-Aḥkām al-Qur’ān.

Secondary Literature

  • Wolfson, H. A. The Philosophy of the Kalam. Harvard University Press, 1976.

  • Watt, W. Montgomery. Islamic Philosophy and Theology. Edinburgh University Press, 1985.

  • Hoover, Jon. Ibn Taymiyya’s Theodicy of Perpetual Optimism. Brill, 2007.

  • Reynolds, Gabriel Said. The Qur’an and Its Biblical Subtext. Routledge, 2010.

  • Thomas, David. Christian Doctrines in Islamic Theology. Brill, 2008.

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