The Problem of Free Will in Islamic Theology:
Divine Decree, Human Agency, and the Case of Adam
By Dr. Maxwell Shimba
Shimba Theological Institute
Abstract
This article examines the concept of free will in Islamic theology (ʿaqīdah), with particular attention to the doctrine of al-qaḍāʾ wa al-qadar (divine decree and predestination). Using Qur’anic texts, Sahih Hadith—especially Sahih al-Bukhari 6614—and classical Sunni theology, the study argues that Islam, at its doctrinal core, does not affirm genuine human free will. Instead, it presents a deterministic framework in which human actions, including sin, are decreed by Allah prior to their occurrence. The narrative of Adam’s sin and expulsion from Paradise serves as a paradigmatic case exposing this theological tension.
1. Introduction: Free Will as a Theological Necessity
Free will is foundational to moral responsibility, justice, accountability, and punishment. Any religious system that affirms divine judgment must logically sustain human moral agency. This article asks a critical question:
Does Islam, as defined by its authoritative texts, affirm true human free will—or does it teach theological determinism?
While popular Islamic discourse claims a balance between divine sovereignty and human responsibility, a close reading of primary sources reveals a decisive imbalance in favor of absolute divine causation.
2. Predestination (Qadar) as a Pillar of Islam
Belief in al-qadar, both good and evil, is one of the six pillars of Islamic faith. According to Sahih Muslim:
“You believe in Allah… and in al-qadar, its good and its bad.” (Sahih Muslim 8)
Islamic theology teaches that:
All events are written (al-lawḥ al-maḥfūẓ),
All actions are created by Allah,
Nothing occurs outside Allah’s will.
The Qur’an states:
“But you do not will unless Allah wills.” (Qur’an 76:30)
This verse alone establishes a hierarchical causality where human will is not autonomous but derivative—and ultimately overridden.
3. Sahih al-Bukhari 6614: Adam as a Theological Case Study
The most revealing text on Islamic determinism is Sahih al-Bukhari 6614, which records a debate between Adam and Moses:
Moses said: ‘O Adam! You are our father. You disappointed us and caused us to be expelled from Paradise.’
Adam replied: ‘O Moses! Allah chose you for His message and wrote the Torah for you with His own hand. Do you blame me for an action which Allah had written for me forty years before He created me?’
So Adam defeated Moses in the argument.
Key Theological Implications
Adam explicitly denies moral responsibility, appealing to divine predestination.
Muhammad affirms Adam’s argument, stating: “Adam defeated Moses.”
Sin is presented not as a free moral failure, but as a pre-written divine act.
This is not an isolated narration—it is Sahih, canonical, and authoritative in Sunni Islam.
4. Adam’s Sin: Created, Caused, and Punished
According to Islamic doctrine:
Allah created Adam,
Allah decreed Adam’s sin,
Allah caused the circumstances of the sin,
Allah expelled Adam for committing what was decreed.
This raises a profound theological contradiction:
How can Allah justly punish an act He eternally willed, authored, and necessitated?
If Adam could not have done otherwise, then punishment becomes judicially incoherent.
5. Islamic Theological Schools and the Failure of Reconciliation
5.1 Ashʿarite Theology (Mainstream Sunni Islam)
The Ashʿarites teach:
However, kasb does not grant causal power—only nominal participation. This reduces human responsibility to a theological fiction.
5.2 Muʿtazilites (Minority, Historically Rejected)
The Muʿtazilites argued for real free will, but were condemned as heretical. Their theology was politically and doctrinally defeated, leaving determinism as the orthodox position.
6. Moral Responsibility Without Moral Freedom?
Islam insists on:
Judgment Day,
Reward and punishment,
Heaven and Hell.
Yet without genuine free will:
Sin becomes divinely scripted,
Repentance becomes preprogrammed,
Punishment becomes morally arbitrary.
The Qur’an itself intensifies the dilemma:
“Allah misguides whom He wills and guides whom He wills.” (Qur’an 14:4)
“If We had willed, We could have given every soul its guidance.” (Qur’an 32:13)
Guidance and misguidance are not human decisions—they are acts of Allah.
7. Comparative Theological Observation
In biblical theology:
God permits sin but does not cause it,
Humans are morally responsible agents,
Judgment presupposes freedom (Deut. 30:19).
In contrast, Islamic theology:
Attributes both good and evil directly to Allah,
Denies autonomous human will,
Punishes humans for divinely authored acts.
8. Conclusion: Determinism as an Inescapable Outcome
This study concludes that Islamic theology, by its own authoritative sources, does not affirm true free will. The case of Adam—validated by Sahih al-Bukhari 6614—demonstrates that sin, failure, and punishment occur within a fully predetermined divine script.
The theological cost is severe:
Moral responsibility collapses,
Divine justice becomes problematic,
Human accountability becomes symbolic rather than real.
Islam’s doctrine of al-qadar ultimately leads not to a balance of sovereignty and freedom, but to theological determinism.
Author
Dr. Maxwell Shimba
Founder & Theologian
Shimba Theological Institute
