A Comparative Theological and Narrative Analysis of Moses, Jesus, and Muhammad

By Dr. Maxwell Shimba

Shimba Theological Institute

Abstract

This study provides a comprehensive comparative analysis of the narrative, ethical, and theological portrayals of Moses, Jesus, and Muhammad within their respective religious traditions. Whereas the biblical accounts of Moses and Jesus exhibit profound emotional depth, moral complexity, and spiritual coherence, the Islamic portrayal of Muhammad relies heavily on doctrinal proclamation and later historical embellishments. Despite widespread Islamic claims that Muhammad is “the greatest man in history,” such statements often lack narrative substantiation, ethical resonance, or historical evidence comparable to the biblical prophetic tradition. This paper critically evaluates these claims, explores the literary qualities of biblical texts versus Islamic sources, and challenges the retroactive Islamic reclassification of biblical prophets as “Muslims,” a term historically nonexistent prior to the 7th century. The study concludes that the biblical prophetic tradition contains an intrinsic beauty and moral force absent in the Islamic narrative of Muhammad.

1. Introduction

Prophetic figures shape the core narratives of the Abrahamic faiths. Their lives, teachings, and moral influence define the theological foundations of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. While Judaism and Christianity draw from deeply rooted and historically continuous scriptural traditions, Islam retroactively integrates earlier prophets into its own theological framework.

In modern Islamic discourse, Muhammad is frequently promoted as “the greatest man in history,” a claim often grounded not in historical-critical scholarship but in devotional rhetoric, selective online rankings, or repeated slogans. This contrasts sharply with the self-authenticating power of the biblical narratives of Moses and Jesus, which require no promotional reinforcement to convey their emotional, moral, and spiritual depth.

This paper provides an academic examination of the literary, theological, and historical dimensions of these three figures to assess the validity of comparative greatness claims and the legitimacy of Islamic retrospective classification.

2. Literature Review

2.1. Moses in Biblical Scholarship

Scholarly studies on Moses emphasize the complexity of his identity: a Hebrew child raised in an Egyptian court, a fugitive, a shepherd, and finally a reluctant prophet chosen by YHWH. Widely recognized works in biblical studies highlight Moses’ humanity, moral struggles, and leadership under divine commission. His story permeates Jewish and Christian theology, serving as a foundational liberation narrative.

2.2. Jesus in Theological and Historical Studies

Historical Jesus scholarship—spanning conservative, moderate, and critical perspectives—agrees that Jesus’ message centered on compassion, forgiveness, and the kingdom of God. His crucifixion is universally recognized as a historical event, and Christian theology views His sacrificial death as the pinnacle of divine love. The Sermon on the Mount and His prayer of forgiveness from the cross are widely acknowledged as unmatched ethical teachings.

2.3. Muhammad in Islamic Sources and Western Research

Islamic scholarship on Muhammad relies primarily on the Sīra (biographies) and Hadith literature, compiled one to two centuries after his death. Many Western scholars note that these sources blend history with theological idealization. The Qur’an itself provides minimal narrative about Muhammad, emphasizing commands and legislation over personal biography. Works in critical Islamic studies often highlight the contrast between Muhammad’s militarized prophetic model and the pacifistic moral vision of Jesus.

2.4. Claims of Prophetic Continuity in Islam

Islam claims that all previous prophets were “Muslims,” yet this assertion lacks corroborating evidence from Jewish, Christian, Greek, Roman, or Near Eastern historical records. The terminology and theological constructs of Islam and Muslim are absent from all pre-Islamic sources, appearing only with the rise of Muhammad in the 7th century.

3. Methodology

This research employs:

Comparative literary analysis of scriptural texts (Torah, New Testament, Qur’an, Hadith).
Historical-critical analysis of the development of prophetic narratives.
Narrative criticism to assess emotional depth, moral force, and human resonance.
Theological evaluation of each figure’s message and method of leadership.

The study does not seek to undermine individuals but to evaluate textual and historical claims within an academic framework.

4. Analysis

4.1. Moses: A Narrative Rooted in Vulnerability and Divine Calling

The story of Moses resonates because of its transparency. The Torah presents Moses as:

fearful (Exod. 3:11; 4:10)
unwilling (Exod. 4:13)
exiled and humbled (Exod. 2:15)
dependent entirely on God’s guidance

His leadership arises not from conquest but from obedience. The liberation of Israel, the challenge to Pharaoh, and the journey toward the Promised Land are built upon a narrative of divine-human partnership rather than force.

4.2. Jesus: The Apex of Moral and Emotional Resonance

Jesus’ narrative surpasses all in ethical profundity:

He heals out of compassion, not power projection.
He teaches radical love: “Love your enemies” (Matt. 5:44).
His crucifixion reveals ultimate forgiveness: “Father, forgive them” (Luke 23:34).
His Kingdom message transforms individuals and societies through internal renewal rather than political conquest.

The emotional depth of Jesus’ life and death remains unmatched in ancient literature.

4.3. Muhammad: A Prophet Defined by Command and Conquest

Islamic narratives reveal a markedly different prophetic model:

Muhammad participates in more than twenty military campaigns.
Apostasy from his religion is punishable by death in traditional Islamic law.
The expansion of Islam historically occurred through political dominance and, in many cases, coercion.

Islamic devotional literature exalts Muhammad with titles and slogans (“the greatest man”), yet provides few narratives of moral vulnerability or self-sacrificial love. Instead, Muhammad’s greatness is treated as a doctrinal requirement rather than an organically compelling story.

4.4. The Absence of Emotional or Narrative Depth in Islamic Biography

Unlike Moses and Jesus, whose narratives invite empathy and transformation, the Sīra and Hadith present Muhammad primarily as:

a lawgiver
a military commander
a political leader

This functional portrayal lacks the deeply human emotional resonance found in biblical stories. The consequence is that Muslims must assert Muhammad’s greatness externally rather than demonstrating it through intrinsic narrative beauty.

5. Discussion

5.1. The Need for Repetition: Why Muhammad Must Be Declared Great

Islamic tradition elevates Muhammad through formulaic recitations because his narrative lacks the aesthetic and moral force of biblical prophetic traditions. The repetition compensates for the absence of narrative persuasion.

5.2. The Appropriation of Biblical Figures into Islamic Theology

Islam often appropriates Moses, Jesus, David, Solomon, and others as “Muslims,” but this claim collapses under historical scrutiny:

The words Islam and Muslim appear nowhere in pre-Islamic texts.
Judaism and Christianity never used Islamic terminology.
The Qur’an retrospectively reinterprets earlier prophets to validate Muhammad.

This retroactive theological revision lacks historical foundations and appears motivated by the need to legitimize Muhammad's prophethood.

5.3. Contrasting Leadership Models

Figure	Leadership Model	Method
Moses	Reluctant prophet	Divine calling, liberation
Jesus	Servant-Savior	Love, sacrifice, transformation
Muhammad	Commander-prophet	Political power, conquest

The distinctions are stark and historically recognized.

6. Conclusion

The narratives of Moses and Jesus possess intrinsic spiritual, emotional, and moral power requiring no external validation. Moses’ vulnerability and Jesus’ sacrificial love stand as literary and theological masterpieces.

In contrast, Muhammad’s portrayal in Islamic literature is rooted in obedience, command, and conquest rather than vulnerability, compassion, or transformative love. Claims declaring Muhammad “the greatest man” reflect doctrinal insistence rather than narrative evidence.

Furthermore, Islamic attempts to reclassify all biblical prophets as “Muslims” are historically unjustifiable and linguistically anachronistic. The terms Islam and Muslim did not exist prior to Muhammad.

Ultimately, the greatness of Moses and Jesus is self-evident through their stories. The greatness of Muhammad must be proclaimed repeatedly because it cannot be demonstrated through narrative depth, emotional resonance, or moral beauty. When greatness is asserted but not evidenced, it ceases to be faith and becomes a form of false witness — something Scripture identifies as morally unacceptable.

Monday, December 1, 2025