The Qur’an, contrary to widespread belief among its adherents, is not necessarily divinely inspired or authored. Rather, it appears to reflect the personal thoughts, reflections, and cognitive patterns of Qutham, commonly known as Muhammad. Historical and textual analysis suggests that Muhammad may have experienced mental or psychological disturbances, which could have manifested in traits consistent with later psychopathological tendencies. There exists no independent witness to the purported divine revelation of Allah to Muhammad; all accounts derive solely from Muhammad himself, conveyed to his scribes and close associates. It is also widely acknowledged that Muhammad was illiterate, unable to read or write, relying entirely on oral transmission.
A critical examination of the Qur’an raises further questions regarding its originality as a divine revelation. Large portions of its content closely parallel pre-existing Judeo-Christian scriptures, including narratives, ethical precepts, and legal injunctions found in the Hebrew Bible and the Torah. This overlap challenges claims that the Qur’an represents an entirely independent revelation from God.
From a Judeo-Christian perspective, Muhammad does not conform to the established characteristics of biblical prophets. All recognized prophets within the Judeo-Christian tradition originated from Jewish and Levantine communities, whereas Muhammad emerged from Arabia. Furthermore, genealogical claims linking Ishmael to the Arab peoples are historically and ethnologically tenuous; Ishmael is documented as of Hebrew and Egyptian descent, which complicates traditional Islamic assertions regarding his role as the progenitor of Arab peoples.
Islam, or Muhammadanism, can be contextualized as emerging from pre-Islamic Arabian religious practices, particularly those associated with the Kaaba in Mecca. The deity Hubal was historically venerated at the Kaaba, and ritual practices—such as circumambulation during festivals—exhibit continuity with earlier pagan customs. Contemporary Islamic rites, including the Tawaf around the Kaaba, retain structural elements reminiscent of these pre-Islamic traditions.
Key Critical Hypotheses / Scholarly Challenges
• Questioning the traditional origin and authorship of the Qur’an / Islam’s early history
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A prominent work is Crossroads to Islam: The Origins of the Arab Religion and the Arab State by Yehuda D. Nevo and Judith Koren. Using archaeological, epigraphic (rock inscriptions), numismatic (coins), and non‑Muslim textual evidence (rather than relying solely on later Muslim historiography), they argue that much of the traditional narrative about the 7th‑century rise of Islamic faith — including the identity of Muhammad as a prophet, the early Arab conquests, and the canonical form of the Qur’an — may be a later construction. According to their thesis, what later became Islam evolved gradually from a more vague “indeterminate monotheism,” crystallizing only in the 2nd/3rd Islamic century (i.e. well after Muhammad’s death). (Wikipedia)
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In this reconstruction, the canonical Qur’an (as known today) was not fully codified in Muhammad’s lifetime but took shape over decades (or perhaps even a century) — potentially during a period of state‑building when a “state religion” was needed. (humanitieshub.sdsu.edu)
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This challenges the traditional Muslim view that the Qur’an was revealed to Muhammad by divine revelation, memorized and written down almost contemporaneously, and preserved faithfully.
• Pre‑Islamic religious context: paganism, polytheism, and shrine of the Kaaba
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Historical and anthropological research confirms that, before the rise of Islam, most of the Arabian Peninsula adhered to forms of animism and polytheism. Local tribes worshipped deities — and ritual practices included totemic, idol, and sacred-stone veneration. (Lumen Learning)
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The shrine known as Kaaba in Mecca was not originally a purely Abrahamic monotheistic sanctuary — rather, according to traditional Arab (and later Muslim) accounts, it housed some 360 idols representing various gods and spirits, chief among them a deity named Hubal. This accords with descriptions by early Muslim historians about pre‑Islamic Arabian religion. (Lumen Learning)
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The continuity between certain pre‑Islamic rituals (such as circumambulation of the Kaaba — Tawaf — pilgrimages, veneration of sacred stones) and later Islamic rites has been interpreted by some scholars as evidence that early Islam integrated older pagan practices, reinterpreting them under a new religious paradigm. (krauselabs.net)
• Questionable reliability of primary sources: late historiography and textual developments
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Much of what we “know” about Muhammad, his life, the early Muslim community, and the Qur’an’s compilation comes from sources written decades or even centuries after the events (9th century CE or later). For example, biographical works and hadith collections post‑date Muhammad’s lifetime by generations. This gap raises serious historiographical concerns about transmission, authenticity, retrospective editing, and anachronism. (Wikipedia)
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Some scholars in the “revisionist school” (inspired by works such as that of medievalist John Wansbrough) maintain that the Qur’an itself may reflect a process of gradual textual crystallization rather than a single instantaneous revelation. The book Textual Criticism and Qurʼān Manuscripts by Keith E. Small represents one attempt to apply contemporary methods of textual criticism to early Qur’anic manuscripts, revealing variants in early copies and suggesting that certain verses may have evolved over time. (Wikipedia)
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Because the historical — non‑Muslim, archaeological, epigraphic — record for the early 7th century Arabian context is sparse, any reconstruction necessarily involves a degree of uncertainty. Critics of the revisionist approach argue that radical skepticism (e.g. denying Muhammad’s historicity) tends to “reject wholesale” rather than offer balanced revision, and sometimes relies on speculative readings of silence or absence of evidence. (Bryn Mawr Classical Review)
Implications & Interpretive Hypotheses (Consistent with Your Critique)
If one accepts (even provisionally) the skeptical or revisionist perspective discussed above, the following interpretive consequences become plausible — and they align with (though not automatically validate) some of your earlier arguments.
| Implication / Hypothesis | Significance |
|---|---|
| The Qur’an may not reflect a direct, contemporaneous divine revelation to a single individual, but rather a text that developed over decades within an evolving religious and political context. | Undermines claims of Qur’an’s divine uniqueness, singular authorship, or miraculous inerrancy. |
| Early Islam may have synthesized (or appropriated) existing Arabian religious and cultural traditions — including pagan rituals associated with the Kaaba — recasting them under a new monotheistic theology. | Supports the view that Islam has roots in pre‑Islamic paganism, and that certain Islamic practices may be reworked pagan rites. |
| The genealogical narratives connecting Arabs to ancient biblical figures (such as Ishmael) — and by extension legitimizing Arab‑Islamic claims to Abrahamic heritage — lose historical plausibility if early Muslim traditions were constructed later. | Casts doubt on the theological and ethno‑historical link between Arabia and the Judeo‑Christian legacy. |
| Since early Muslim historiography and hadith literature were compiled generations post‑factum, they may reflect theological, political or identity‑motivated editing rather than pure historical memory. | Necessitates treating traditional Islamic biographies and narratives with critical scrutiny. |
Methodological and Scholarly Caveats — Why This Is a Contested & Sensitive Field
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Absence of evidence ≠ evidence of absence. Archaeological or epigraphic “silence” (e.g., no pre‑7th‑century inscriptions explicitly naming Muhammad, Mecca, or the Qur’an) does not automatically prove non‑existence. The deserts of Arabia are poorly preserved; many records may have perished. Thus, radical conclusions must be tentative.
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Revisionist theories are controversial. Works like Crossroads to Islam represent a minority viewpoint. As one review notes, their rejection of the traditional narrative is “so uninformed… so specious in the contrivance of its arguments” that many historians remain unconvinced. (Bryn Mawr Classical Review) Scholars such as Fred Donner — while critical of simplistic traditionalism — argue that total dismissal of Islamic historiography goes too far. (Wikipedia)
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Textual‑critical evidence remains fragmentary. While manuscripts differ in some early copies, and textual‑criticism scholars note variations, these findings do not necessarily invalidate the Qur’an as a whole. They do, however, caution against treating the text as monolithic and unchanging from the outset. (Wikipedia)
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Potential bias and polemics. Many of the revisionist or “skeptical” works are written with polemical intent — either religious (Christian apologetics, atheistic critique) or ideological. This raises concerns about motive, selective sourcing, and interpretation. Indeed, the anthology The Quest for the Historical Muhammad has been criticized as “a monument to duplicity,” representing a “lopsided” polemical agenda. (Wikipedia)
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Complexity of oral culture. Pre‑Islamic Arabia was largely an oral society; memory, poetry, oral tradition played huge roles. Written inscriptions were limited and often reserved for elite or formal communication. The existence of some pre‑Islamic inscriptions does not necessarily reflect widespread literacy, nor does it prove Muhammad himself was literate. Different interpretations exist. (WikiIslam)
Conclusion — What Can Be Said “With Scholarly Respectability”
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It is methodologically legitimate to question the traditional Islamic narrative — origins, compilation of the Qur’an, Muhammad’s biography — using archaeological, epigraphic, textual‑criticism, and historiographical analysis.
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There exist serious scholarly hypotheses (e.g. Nevo & Koren, Wansbrough tradition) that present alternative reconstructions of how Islam may have emerged, developed, and been codified.
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At the same time, these hypotheses remain highly contested and far from consensus. Most historians of early Islam treat such radical revisionist theories with caution, often preferring more moderate critical approaches.
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Therefore, any argument claiming that Islam is simply a “pagan Arabian religion repackaged,” or that the Qur’an was purely the mental ramblings of an individual, must — if to be taken seriously — be framed as a hypothesis, not as established fact. It must also transparently acknowledge the uncertainties, methodological limitations, and counter‑arguments.
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