Why direct archaeological references to the name Allah are scarce

By Dr Maxwell Shimba, Shimba Theological Institute

Abstract

Islamic tradition holds that God sent a very large number of prophets to every people (a commonly cited figure in popular Muslim discourse is 124,000). Given such a widespread prophetic mission over millennia, one might expect widespread material traces—inscriptions, monuments or other archaeological objects—explicitly naming Allah in contexts that clearly refer to prophets. This paper examines that expectation and explains, from linguistic, historical and archaeological perspectives, why direct archaeological references of the kind imagined are rare. It argues (1) the theological claim and its textual basis, (2) the linguistic and epigraphic history of the name Allah, and (3) the methodological limits of archaeology when asked to confirm or refute religious-historical assertions about prophets. Citations to representative scholarly and reference sources are provided. (islamhelpline.net)

1. The claim in Islamic tradition: number and distribution of prophets

A number often encountered in Muslim popular literature and some ulema-discourses is that Allah sent “124,000 prophets” (Arabic: nabiyyīn). This specific figure is traceable to post-prophetic hadith literature (longer hadith chains reported in collections such as Musnad of Aḥmad and other reports), but it is not presented in the Qurʾān itself and is treated with caution by many scholars of hadith; authoritative modern statements note that the exact number is not known and that only God truly knows the total. Thus, while the idea of numerous prophets is an established part of the religious imagination, the precise figure is a later exegetical/historical tradition rather than Qurʾanic datum. (Islam Stack Exchange)

2. The name Allah: linguistic and epigraphic background

Linguistic continuity. The Arabic word Allāh is the established Arabic term for “God” and is cognate with Semitic forms (e.g., Syriac Alāhā, Hebrew Eloah/Elohim). The term existed in Arabic before Islam and was used by Arabic-speaking Christians and Jews as well as by pagans to denote a high or supreme deity in some contexts. Modern reference works summarize this linguistic continuity and the word’s continued use across Abrahamic communities. (Encyclopedia Britannica)
Pre-Islamic inscriptions and attestations. Epigraphic finds from late antique and pre-Islamic Arabia occasionally contain forms glossed as al-ilah / Allāh (for example, the so-called Zabad inscription and Christian Arabic inscriptions dated to the early sixth century). Scholarship notes that while such attestations exist, they are limited and do not constitute a widespread body of monumental inscriptions that systematically record the word in contexts that would prove or disprove particular prophetic claims. (Wikipedia)

3. Why archaeological excavation rarely produces “direct references” to prophets or a theological name such as Allah

Expecting archaeology to yield explicit, globally distributed inscriptions saying “Prophet X served Allah” carries several methodological problems. The following factors help explain the scarcity of such direct archaeological corroboration:

3.1. Non-literacy or limited literacy in many recipient communities

Many communities alleged to have received prophetic instruction in antiquity were oral or had limited literacy; where written records existed they were often perishable (papyrus, leather) and have not survived in most environments. Archaeology favors durable media (stone, pottery, metal), so the absence of portable writings does not mean the absence of historical persons or movements. (General literature on archaeology’s survivorship bias discusses this widely; see bibliography.) (Encyclopedia Britannica)

3.2. Epigraphic genres and social practice

Inscriptions in antiquity most often commemorate rulers, dedications, legal texts, land records, funerary formulas, or cultic lists. Ordinary religious teachers or local prophets frequently left no monumental record. Where religious language appears, it commonly uses local names and formulas that may not coincide with the specific theological vocabulary later used by literate, centralized religious communities. Thus, the kinds of short, local prophetic careers described in oral traditions do not necessarily produce the archaeological signatures archaeologists look for. (Encyclopedia Britannica)

3.3. Linguistic variation and translation problems

The concept expressed by Allāh can appear under different lexemes in different languages (e.g., El, Eloah, Alāhā), scripts (Safaitic, Sabaic, Nabataean, Syriac, Greek, Aramaic), and orthographies. An inscription may honor the supreme deity but use a cognate term or an epithet unfamiliar to modern readers; cataloguing and recognizing all these variants is a specialist task. Thus, the absence of the exact Arabic orthographic ligand “الله‎” in a region does not prove the absence of worship of the one God or of its being invoked by local teachers. (Jal LQ)

3.4. Iconoclasm, reuse and destruction of religious evidence

Religious conflict, subsequent iconoclasm, building reuse and spoliation have destroyed and recycled many inscriptions and cultic monuments. Stones with inscriptions were often reused in later buildings; cult objects were repurposed or destroyed in religious reform movements, so survivals are fragmentary and not representative of past abundance. (Encyclopedia Britannica)

3.5. Theological and historiographical expectations vs. archaeological method

Archaeology cannot confirm theological claims (e.g., that a given person was a prophet, or the divine origin of a message). Material remains provide context—settlement patterns, inscriptions, cult practice—but moral or spiritual claims lie outside archaeological proof. Historians therefore combine textual criticism, oral traditions and material culture to construct plausible reconstructions; archaeology is a partner, not a definitive judge, for theological claims. This methodological distinction is crucial when evaluating expectations about discovering “evidence” for prophets. (Encyclopedia Britannica)

4. Synthesis and conclusion

The popular figure of 124,000 prophets has roots in later hadith corpora and theological tradition; it expresses the Qurʾānic idea that God sent guidance repeatedly, but the exact number is not a Qurʾānic datum known with historical certainty. (islamhelpline.net)
The lexical item Allāh is older than Islam as an Arabic term for God and appears in pre-Islamic and late antique contexts, but attestations are episodic rather than globally abundant. (Encyclopedia Britannica)
The absence of globally distributed, explicit archaeological inscriptions that name Allah in direct association with named prophets is not, on archaeological grounds, surprising: survival bias, oral transmission, epigraphic genre, linguistic variation, and later destruction/reuse all drastically limit what can be expected to survive in the material record. (Encyclopedia Britannica)

Taken together, the religious claim (many thousands of prophets) and the archaeological record address different kinds of questions. Archaeology addresses what has survived materially and can rarely, by itself, adjudicate theological claims. Scholars must therefore treat textual tradition, epigraphy and material culture as complementary evidentiary streams, each with its own limits.

Selected bibliography (representative, not exhaustive)

Primary/Traditional Sources & Discussion
- Musnad Aḥmad (hadith collections; long traditions sometimes cited for the “124,000” figure). See modern discussions in hadith studies and specialist handbooks on hadith authentication. (Islam Stack Exchange)
Reference works & linguistic/epigraphic background
- “Allah.” Encyclopaedia Britannica. (Entry on the history, usage, and pre-Islamic attestations of the term Allāh). (Encyclopedia Britannica)
- “Allah.” Wikipedia (summary of etymology, pre-Islamic usage and modern usage—useful as a quick reference; consult primary linguistic scholarship for deeper study). (Wikipedia)
- Karimpour, S. (2023). “The study of the historical roots of the name ‘Allah’ in Pre-Islamic contexts.” Journal of… (discussion of Semitic cognates and Syriac parallels). (Jal LQ)
Archaeology & pre-Islamic Arabian religion
- “Arabian religion — Pre-Islamic deities.” Encyclopaedia Britannica (overview of pre-Islamic cults, inscriptions and the limitations of the epigraphic record). (Encyclopedia Britannica)

Short note on further reading and research directions

For readers who wish to pursue this topic in depth I recommend: (a) specialists’ handbooks on pre-Islamic Arabian epigraphy (Safaitic, Thamudic, Sabaic corpora), (b) works on late antique Levantine Christianity and Arabic inscriptions (e.g., studies of the Zabad and Umm el-Jimal inscriptions), and (c) modern introductions to hadith methodology to understand how later numerical traditions (like “124,000 prophets”) enter the religious record. These three literatures together provide the place-sensitive tools needed to evaluate any particular claim about prophets and archaeology.

Monday, December 1, 2025