IS THE QUR'AN A MIRACLE? NO, IT IS NOT
A Critical Theological and Philosophical Examination of the Islamic Doctrine of I'jaz al-Qur'an
By Dr. Maxwell Shimba
Shimba Theological Institute
Abstract
Among the central doctrines of Islam is the belief that the Qur'an constitutes Muhammad's supreme miracle. Unlike biblical prophets whose divine commissions were authenticated by observable supernatural acts, Islamic theology generally argues that the Qur'an itself is the miracle (i'jaz al-Qur'an), primarily because of its unparalleled literary excellence and inability to be imitated.
This article critically examines that claim from biblical, historical, philosophical, and theological perspectives. It argues that a miracle, by its very nature, should be objectively recognizable rather than dependent upon linguistic expertise or cultural familiarity. It further examines whether the Qur'an presents itself as a book of unprecedented revelation or primarily as a confirmation and retelling of previous biblical narratives. Finally, the article explores philosophical tensions surrounding the classical Islamic doctrine that the Qur'an is the eternal, uncreated Word of Allah while simultaneously existing as a temporal, historical, written book containing conversations spoken by created beings.
Introduction
Throughout Scripture, God authenticated His messengers through observable miracles. Moses confronted Pharaoh through signs. Elijah called fire from heaven. Elisha raised the dead. Jesus healed the blind, cleansed lepers, calmed storms, and raised Lazarus from the grave. The apostles likewise performed miracles before eyewitnesses. These miracles required no linguistic ability. No one needed to know Hebrew, Greek, or Aramaic to recognize that a man born blind had received sight. A miracle transcends language because it transcends natural law.
Islam, however, advances a fundamentally different claim. Rather than presenting Muhammad as authenticated primarily through public supernatural acts, classical Islamic theology identifies the Qur'an itself as Muhammad's greatest miracle. This raises an important theological question: Can a literary work function as a universal miracle?
The doctrine of i'jaz emerged as a formal theological concept in the third/ninth century, though its roots lie in the Qur'an's own "challenge verses" (ayat al-tahaddi), which call upon doubters to produce a chapter like it . As a scholarly consensus developed, the Qur'an's inimitability became a foundational argument for Muhammad's prophethood, sparking extensive debate among Muslim theologians regarding the precise nature of this miraculous quality .
What Is a Miracle?
A miracle possesses several characteristics. It is observable, public, supernatural, verifiable, and independent of both culture and language. When Jesus raised Lazarus (John 11), everyone present witnessed the same event. When Moses divided the Red Sea (Exodus 14), Egyptians and Israelites alike saw the same miracle. No translator was necessary. No literary analysis was required. If something can only be appreciated after years of specialized linguistic training, does it possess the characteristics normally associated with a miracle?
The Qur'an Appeals Primarily to Language
The doctrine of i'jaz rests heavily upon Arabic eloquence. Many Muslim scholars maintain that only the original Arabic reveals the miraculous nature of the Qur'an. This immediately raises a philosophical difficulty. Today, most human beings do not understand Qur'anic Arabic. Likewise, most Muslims throughout history have not been native speakers of classical seventh-century Arabic. If recognizing the miracle depends upon mastery of classical Arabic rhetoric, then access to the miracle appears restricted to a relatively small percentage of humanity.
This differs fundamentally from biblical miracles, which were immediately observable by ordinary people regardless of education or language. As one scholar notes, the challenge of the Qur'an's inimitability is a "dare" that has in fact been answered throughout history by various figures who produced texts they considered Qur'anic imitations, though mainstream theology has rejected these attempts as failures . The very fact that such imitations exist and are debated suggests that the claim of absolute inimitability is contested rather than self-evident.
Does the Qur'an Primarily Reveal New Truth or Recall Earlier Revelation?
The Qur'an repeatedly describes itself as confirming previous revelation. Examples include Qur'an 2:41, 3:3, 5:46, 10:37, and 12:111. Its narratives frequently recount figures already known from the Bible: Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, David, Solomon, Jonah, John the Baptist, Mary, and Jesus.
From this perspective, one may ask whether the Qur'an's primary literary function is the communication of unprecedented revelation or the reaffirmation and reinterpretation of existing sacred history. The Qur'an explicitly states that it serves as a "confirmation of previous Scriptures and a supreme authority on them" (Q. 5:48) . Classical scholar al-Tha'ālibī explains that the Qur'an's status as muhaymin (authoritative over previous revelations) entails that it "confirms that which is true in them, while also reinstating the truth and counteracting corruption found therein" .
This observation does not, by itself, disprove divine inspiration, but it does raise questions about whether repetition of prior narratives alone constitutes a miracle. Furthermore, the Qur'an's engagement with extra-biblical Jewish and Christian traditions—such as the story of angels prostrating to Adam, which appears in texts like the Syriac Christian Cave of Treasures and the rabbinic Genesis Rabbah—suggests that the Qur'an participates in a broader intertextual conversation rather than delivering entirely unprecedented material .
Muhammad and Public Miracles
The New Testament repeatedly presents miracles as divine authentication. Islamic tradition contains numerous miracle reports preserved in Hadith literature. Within the Qur'an itself, however, Muhammad frequently responds to demands for miraculous signs by directing attention to revelation rather than performing public miracles. Examples include Qur'an 6:37, 10:20, 13:7, 17:59, and 29:50–51.
This creates an important contrast with Moses, Elijah, and Jesus, whose ministries were characterized by repeated public miracles. As one Islamic scholar explains, even when prophets produced physical miracles, these were not in themselves conclusive in proving their message; some people who witnessed miracles still rejected the prophets . The Qur'an itself records demands for sensational signs—springs gushing from the earth, a house of gold, ascending to heaven with a book—and responds by reminding that Muhammad is "aught but a man, an apostle" (Q. 17:90–93) .
Whether the Qur'an intentionally redefines prophetic authentication remains an important subject for theological discussion. The shift from physical miracles to linguistic miracle represents a significant departure from the biblical prophetic pattern.
The Doctrine of the Eternal Qur'an
Classical Sunni theology, particularly within the Ash'arite school, commonly teaches that the Qur'an is the uncreated, eternal speech (kalam) of Allah. This doctrine raises several philosophical questions. If the Qur'an is eternal and uncreated, how should one understand its historical manifestation as a written Arabic book produced within seventh-century Arabia? Is the physical book eternal? If not, what precisely is eternal? How does eternal speech become successive written language without entering time?
These questions occupied Muslim theologians for centuries, particularly during debates between the Mu'tazilites, who argued for the createdness of the Qur'an, and traditionalist scholars, who insisted on its eternity. The Caliph al-Ma'mun famously declared the Qur'an created and enforced this position, though later Caliphs reversed course . The Ash'arite theologian al-Baqillani developed sophisticated arguments defending the uncreatedness of the Qur'an, distinguishing between God's eternal attribute of speech and its temporal manifestations .
Al-Pazdawi, another prominent Ash'arite theologian, attempted a middle position: while the Speech of God is uncreated and timeless, the physical manifestation of the Qur'an—that which is written, read, and recited—is not exactly God's Speech itself, but rather a codex that signifies God's Speech . He drew upon a semiotic theory in which the verses of the Qur'an are "signs" that signify the eternal Speech of God, but are not identical with it .
Yet this distinction raises further questions. If the physical Qur'an is merely a signifier, in what sense can it be called the eternal Word? And how does the eternal attribute of speech relate to the temporal act of revelation?
The Presence of Created Speech Within the Qur'an
The Qur'an records numerous conversations involving created beings. These include prophets, kings, unbelievers, Pharaoh, Mary, Jesus, angels, jinn, and Satan. For example, the Qur'an records conversations between Allah and Iblis following Adam's creation (Q. 7:11–18; 15:28–43). The text also preserves the spoken words of human beings who lived centuries after creation.
This raises a philosophical question: If the Qur'an is wholly eternal and uncreated, how should one understand recorded speeches that historically occurred within time?
Muslim theologians generally distinguish between Allah's eternal attribute of speech and its temporal expression in revelation. Fakhr al-Din al-Razi, a later Ash'arite theologian, adopted a moderate position: he did not reject the createdness of the external dimension of God's speech, but defended that its inner dimension (kalam nafs) is eternal . This distinction between inner and outer speech attempts to resolve the tension, yet critics argue that it requires further philosophical clarification regarding the relationship between eternity and temporal events.
Historical Development of the Written Qur'an
The Qur'an was initially transmitted orally before being compiled into a written codex after Muhammad's death. This historical process raises additional questions regarding the relationship between eternal divine speech and its preservation within human history. The distinction between eternal revelation and material manuscripts has long been recognized in Islamic theology, yet it continues to invite philosophical analysis.
The codification of the Qur'an under the Caliph 'Uthman, the existence of variant readings, and the historical debates over the collection of the text all suggest that the Qur'an's transmission involved human agency and historical contingency. If the Qur'an is the eternal, uncreated Word of Allah, how should we understand its gathering, compilation, and standardization by human beings within history?
Scientific, Moral, and Hermeneutical Questions
Critics have also examined whether certain Qur'anic passages should be interpreted literally or metaphorically in relation to cosmology, ethics, and history. Examples frequently discussed include passages concerning cosmology, embryology, creation, warfare, slavery, and treatment of captives.
Muslim scholars often respond through contextual interpretation, linguistic analysis, or historical explanation. The ongoing debate illustrates that appeals to the Qur'an's miraculous nature are intertwined with broader questions concerning interpretation, ethics, and hermeneutics. If the Qur'an's inimitability is self-evident, why does its interpretation require such extensive scholarly apparatus? Why does the text generate such diverse and sometimes contradictory interpretations?
Some Western scholars have argued that the "challenge verses" should be viewed as part of the indoctrination of believers rather than a genuine polemic, suggesting that the interlocutors of the Qur'anic speaker are imagined rather than real adversaries . This perspective, while controversial, challenges the assumption that the Qur'an's inimitability is a self-evident truth rather than a theological construction.
Furthermore, the Qur'an's engagement with previous scriptures raises questions about its uniqueness. If the Qur'an confirms and corrects prior revelations, is it primarily derivative, or does its distinctive theological and literary qualities nevertheless constitute originality? Recent scholarship emphasizes that the Qur'an presents "corrective retellings" of earlier traditions, not mere borrowing . Yet this corrective function itself presupposes the existence of prior texts.
The Question of Imitation
A central pillar of the i'jaz doctrine is that no one can produce a text like the Qur'an. Yet throughout Islamic history, various individuals have attempted Qur'anic imitation—from Musaylima (a contemporary of Muhammad) to al-Ma'arrī to modern figures. These imitations exist in multiple languages and represent various motives, including parody, polemic, and sincere religious expression .
The existence of these imitations does not necessarily disprove the Qur'an's claim to inimitability; one could argue that all attempts have failed. However, it does raise important questions. If the Qur'an's inimitability is objectively true, why do people continue to attempt imitation? And by what criteria do we judge a text's success or failure in this regard? The very need for criteria suggests that the judgment is subjective rather than self-evident.
Moreover, the imitations "inevitably wrestle with the same questions that drove celebrated doctors of i'jaz al-Qur'an: What makes the Qur'an the Qur'an? What in the rhetoric and style of God's language grants it a revelatory effect?" . The fact that these questions remain debated suggests that the nature of the Qur'an's inimitability is not obvious to all.
A Christian Theological Response
From a Christian perspective, divine revelation is consistently authenticated through public acts of God within history, culminating in the incarnation, miracles, death, and resurrection of Jesus Christ. The New Testament presents these events not as linguistic phenomena accessible only to specialists but as historical realities witnessed by many.
The apostle Paul grounds the gospel in the resurrection of Jesus, which he presents as a historically verifiable event witnessed by over five hundred people (1 Corinthians 15:3–8). This evidential approach differs fundamentally from the Islamic emphasis on literary excellence as the primary authentication of prophecy.
The Bible presents miracles as God's signs, not as acts requiring specialized knowledge to appreciate. When Jesus healed the blind, the miracle was recognized by all—the healed person, the crowd, the religious leaders, even the skeptics. No one needed to know Greek to observe a man born blind receiving sight. In contrast, the Qur'an's supposed miracle requires years of linguistic study and cultural immersion to appreciate, and even then, its miraculous nature remains a matter of theological conviction rather than universal observation.
Furthermore, the doctrine of the eternal Qur'an presents theological difficulties that find no parallel in Christian Scripture. While Christians affirm that God's Word is eternal, they distinguish between the eternal Logos (the Second Person of the Trinity) and the written Scriptures, which were composed within history by human authors under divine inspiration. The Qur'an, in contrast, is identified directly with God's eternal speech, creating philosophical tensions that the distinction between divine and human agency in Scripture does not raise.
Questions for Scholarly Debate
The following questions are intended to stimulate theological and philosophical discussion:
If the Qur'an is the eternal and uncreated Word of Allah, in what sense does it exist as a physical Arabic book produced in history? Does the physical book participate in eternity, or is it merely a temporal representation?
How can eternal speech include conversations spoken by created beings centuries after creation? If the Qur'an contains the words of Pharaoh, Mary, Satan, and others, are these words themselves eternal, or only the divine act of revealing them?
Are the recorded words of prophets, angels, Pharaoh, Mary, Satan, and other individuals themselves eternal, or only Allah's act of revealing them? The distinction between content and act requires further exploration.
If only Allah's speech is eternal, how should the speeches of created beings preserved within the Qur'an be understood? Does the Qur'an contain both eternal and created speech, and if so, how are they distinguished?
If literary excellence constitutes a miracle, why should recognition of that miracle depend upon specialized knowledge of classical Arabic? Does this not make the miracle inaccessible to the vast majority of humanity?
Why does the Qur'an repeatedly present itself as confirming earlier revelation if its literary uniqueness is its primary miracle? Does confirmation of prior texts constitute originality or novelty?
Why does the Qur'an repeatedly respond to requests for miraculous signs by pointing to revelation rather than narrating public miracles performed by Muhammad? Does this suggest a departure from the biblical prophetic model?
Does a miracle require objective public verification, or may it depend upon literary appreciation? The distinction between physical and literary miracles raises epistemological questions.
How should the doctrine of the eternal Qur'an be reconciled with the historical compilation and transmission of the written text? What role does human agency play in the preservation of an eternal revelation?
What criteria distinguish divine revelation from literary excellence? If the Qur'an's inimitability is its primary miracle, how do we know that it is not merely a work of great literary skill?
If the Qur'an corrects earlier scriptures, does this not imply that prior revelations were insufficient or corrupt? How does this relate to the Qur'an's claim to confirm earlier revelation?
Can the Qur'an's intertextual engagement with Jewish and Christian traditions be reconciled with its claim of unique origin? Does the presence of parallels undermine claims of originality?
Conclusion
The doctrine of the Qur'an's miraculous nature remains one of Islam's foundational theological claims. Nevertheless, its philosophical coherence, historical development, and epistemological basis continue to invite careful scholarly examination. The i'jaz doctrine, while central to Islamic theology, emerged over centuries of debate and was not a fully formed concept at the time of the Qur'an's revelation .
The Qur'an's self-presentation as confirmation of earlier scriptures, its intertextual engagement with Jewish and Christian traditions, and its response to demands for miracles all raise questions about its claim to be Muhammad's definitive miracle. The philosophical tensions surrounding the doctrine of an eternal, uncreated Qur'an that simultaneously exists as a temporal, historical text with created speech within it remain unresolved.
From a Christian perspective, divine revelation is consistently authenticated through public acts of God within history, culminating in the incarnation, miracles, death, and resurrection of Jesus Christ. The New Testament presents these events not as linguistic phenomena accessible only to specialists but as historical realities witnessed by many. The resurrection of Jesus, in particular, provides a public, observable, historically verifiable authentication of divine revelation that does not depend upon specialized knowledge or cultural immersion.
Consequently, the claim that the Qur'an is itself the definitive miracle of Muhammad remains open to critical evaluation. Questions concerning the relationship between eternal speech and temporal revelation, the inclusion of created speech within an allegedly eternal text, the dependence of i'jaz upon mastery of classical Arabic, and the Qur'an's own presentation of Muhammad's prophetic ministry deserve continued scholarly engagement.
A careful and respectful examination of these issues contributes to a deeper understanding of both Islamic theology and the distinctive Christian doctrine of divine revelation. Both traditions affirm that God has spoken, yet they differ profoundly in how they understand that speech and by what means it has been authenticated. These differences are not merely academic but bear directly on the question of how human beings may know God and receive His guidance.
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